Lowri's Agender

Author: Lowri’s Agender

  • Transforming A Goblin’s Fruit

    Transforming A Goblin’s Fruit

    Content Notes: Discussions of Anti-Semitism, Classism, Colonisation, Misogyny and Rape

    Last time we discussed the history of Christina Rossetti as well as the period she grew up in. Now we will look at the way Anglican theology is baked into the foundations of Goblin Market. As well as the issues of Victorian Anglicanism that seeped into Rossetti’s work.

    Consuming Women

    Although pop culture of Victorian England regards the period as a time of almost hyperbolic prudishness, historical and literary analysis reveals a more contradictory picture. Mary Carpenter states there was a pervasive culture of sexually marketing women, whilst advising young girls to never become so slovenly and lustful.[1] She states that writing within this time period, as well as cultural consciousness generally, contrasted the women who fell to such desires against the pure untainted maidens. This becomes intriguing when we consider how Rossetti describes the sisters after Laura has partaken in the fruit of the goblin market:

    “Like two blossoms on one stem,

    Like two flakes of new-fall’n snow,

    Like two wands of ivory.”[2]

    Instead of viewing Laura as inherently tainted, weaker or more morally bankrupt, Rossetti chooses to emphasise the similarities between the two sisters. Furthermore, Carpenter compares Rossetti’s opinions on the fall of Eve with the “fall” of Laura. [1] She states that in both cases, it is to do with their virtues of boldness but lack of guile that results in their respective downfalls. This does lead to a essentialising of feminine behaviours, but still reflects a more empathetic lens and certainly better than the pervasive opinion (then and now) of women’s inherent feeble mindedness. Additionally, this suggests Laura’s issues are as much a trap of a vicious sexist society as they are a fault of her own personality traits. And she is not the only one entangled in the trap of misogyny.

    Whilst Laura’s peeping results in her succumbing to temptation, we can see how resisting the Goblin Market leads to issues for Lizzie. Initially, it is as straightforward as the denial of the hedonistic delights that Laura gets to indulge in. Lizzie must remain eternally vigilant against the notion of pleasure or else succumb to a stupor.[1] This plight of Lizzie is doubled down when she ventures to the market and her resistance is punished. The attack by the goblin men is vicious, even though it starts with mere insults. Soon it escalates to scratching, biting and attempted force feeding of fruits, in a scene of metaphorical rape.

    This assault all starts because Lizzie wishes to buy the fruit with a silver coin and refuses to partake in a feast with the goblins. One can regard this as an angering of the sexual market, the commodification of sexuality for the dispensation of women. Because Lizzie acts with temperance and is in some ways protected by possessing money, a representation of status and power, the alluring tricks of the Goblin Market fail. Lizzie is gifted with some guile and luck, therefore the market assails her, attempting to force her into a similar position as Laura. So that she may experience the emptiness her sister does.

    Goblin Market (2017) by Omar Rayyan
    Retrieved From: MV Times

    But we can take this on step further. The exotic fruits do not originate in Britain as there are “citrons from the south” and it is said “men sell not such in any town”. [2] These are colonial exports, luxuries unimaginable to the working class who would have raised a brow at a banana. These are fruits people could not access with a pittance and therefore would turn to other avenues. Carpenter interprets the act of Laura trading her golden locks as a stand in for how women, and girls, bargained their bodies for access to luxury. [1] In this light, it is a metaphorical stand in for sex work and the bartering of bodies to receive goods.

    So, we can understand Rossetti’s framing as favouring the redemption of fallen women. Specifically, she encourages the acceptance of destitute women, championing amelioration of their exploitation. And this does fit with the history, Rossetti was part of a sisterhood that catered to the lower class. [3] Even if All Saints Sisterhood did not exclusively cater to sex workers, it is likely that those who volunteered would come into contact with them. Because any long term help for the impoverished will inevitably have to help those who turn to selling their bodies. Rossetti was able to witness the victimisation and horror these women underwent to survive. And the power of sisterhood, to assist those in dire straits.

    Sisterhood and Rossetti

    The prevailing Anglican narrative in Rossetti’s time for men and women, consisted of an innate gender binary. Men were to save; women were to provide for those who saved. In some ways this was mirrored in one of the most vital relationships within the Bible, that of Jesus and his mother, Mary. Jesus, the man, is the closest to God and so only he can bring about the saving of those who have sinned. Whereas Mary can only support and nurture as a maternal figure.

    However, as Janet Casey points out, this dominant narrative did not go unchallenged. Many women of the time period saw themselves more in Jesus than in Mary because, due to the Fall of Eve, they too were born to suffer. [4] Florence Nightingale viewed herself as a female Christ, believing that women’s role as nurturers could take on heroic status. A belief shared by Rossetti, who said of maternal love that it makes a mother:

    “Not a giantess or heroine, but at once and full grown a hero and giant”.[5]

    We can see the heroism of feminity within Goblin Market, as Lizzie is motivated to act by Laura’s suffering and in turn suffers to redeem her sister. An act that usually would be seen as masculine instead leads to the exaltation of feminine care and love, especially when it is directed to other women in sisterhood. It is not a breaking down of these binaries in the modern sense but more of a restructuring. This was typical for feminist thought of the time period, emphasising that women’s roles did not mean they should be perceived as lesser in capability and dignity.[4]

    As well, we have talked about how both Laura and Lizzie are trapped within the confines of gendered expectation and the sexual market. But as Casey argues, both too offer redemption from this feminine suffering.[4] Lizzie through the Eucharistic redemption the fruit offers Laura, how sisterhood and togetherness can be healing. Laura through exhibiting courage that Lizzie replicates when venturing into the Goblin Market, which leads to spiritual prosperity. The pair work together to help foster growth in one another, showing the redeemer can be redeemed and vice versa. Thereby, breaking down the narrow expectations for women to be the passive role.

    The Goblin Market (1984) by John Bolton
    Retrieved From: Kristo Kai on Twitter

    However, I would like to explore a grimmer side to the ideal of sisterly redemption through suffering. Because this rhetoric inevitably leads to the glorification and acceptance of suffering as character growth. These are not horrific experiences that will scar the person for the rest of their life, but rather challenges to be overcome to gain inner strength. Rossetti never dwells on the violation that Lizzie and Laura experience throughout the course of the poem. Instead restoring both sisters to their former innocence and imagining a picturesque future for them.

    In isolation, this is not dreadful and makes sense given how much of the tale relies on the redemptive powers of the Eucharist and sisterhood.

    But considering how much of this tale is linked to the sisterhood where Rossetti worked at. To the idea of healing the spiritual ills of the impoverished and dispossessed. It inevitably comes across as rather detached and unhelpful. Though Casey argues that both sisters redeem each other, only Lizzie with the silver coin, a sign of wealth, takes on the Christ-like mantle. Which, in my opinion at least, ends up feeling like a classist saviour narrative that was all too common within English culture at the time. A narrative that extended to colonialist practices the country continues to enact.

    In this way, Rossetti is not challenging the stories of the time. Instead she feebly is stating that women can do it too, in an attempt to envelop richer white Anglican women into the dominant class that decide how and who to redeem. A tactic still in use to this day.

    Eroticism and The Eucharist

    As talked about in the previous post, the Oxford Movement within the Anglican Church was (amongst other things) pushing for a significant revision of how to understand the Eucharist. Both in terms of how tangible God’s presence was in the bread and wine, as well as the effects of the ritual itself. As Marylu Hill describes, writers of the movement believed the Eucharist led to a satiation of a spiritual hunger. [3]

    Within this framework, people are born with a innate yearning for a union with God, to be a part of his hallowed pasture and become one under him. Hill argues that our desire to satiate such starvation is central to Rossetti’s Goblin Market.[3] Laura especially hungers for the fruits of the market, but in turn finds they do not satiate her needs. It is only when taking communion with Lizzie, our Christ-like redeemer, that she becomes filled.

    But, in framing her story this way, Rossetti establishes a fundamental distinction to her peers. She never says women should not partake in any of the feasts they experience around them. Instead, she focuses on what would best satisfy the hungers they feel. [3] We can observe this in the contrast between the fruit of the Goblin Market and the partaking of Lizzie by Laura. In the former, the focus is on decadence and consuming until you can eat no more. Not out of satiation, but tiredness from the sheer act of irreverent ingestion. But when she partakes in the fruit of Lizzie, there is a bond between the devoured and the one devouring, a connection that stuffs and sustains. A tangible filling of the emotions and body, that results in a complete satisfying of desires and a return to former innocence.

    And this union is absolutely erotic. According to Hill and Casey, there is a deliberate intermingling of the transcendental experience of the Eucharist and the corporeal thrill of getting off. [3][4] Because writers at the time, like Edward Pusey, emphasised the eroticism of the Eucharist:

    “This Body hath he given to us both to hold and to eat; a thing appropriate to intense love. For those whom we kiss vehemently, we ofttimes even bite with our teeth…Even so Christ hath given to us to be filled with his Flesh, drawing us on to greater love.”[3]

    The emphasis on kissing and biting, as well as being filled with Christ as intense love is a particularly interesting mirror to Goblin Market. As it too focuses on the act of biting, suckling and other oral activities. This is to the point that many a psychoanalytic perspective on the nature of devouring under Freudian psychology has been written. But those, to me at least, miss the mark for a more clear and frankly kinkier interpretation.

    Rossetti is demonstrating the inextricable link between the divine and the mundane. Something necessitated by Oxford Movement doctrine, where God’s Word is transformed from unintelligible divinity into digestible material through the Eucharist. In creating the Eucharist, God is acknowledging the importance of earthly bodies and their tangible responses. Whilst Anglicans should seek to transcend their mortal forms, the desires of such bodies are integral to the religious experience.

    Goblin Market (1910) by Florence Harrison
    Retrieved From: Facebook

    In this way, the raw ecstasy of Laura feasting on Lizzie’s juices is about marrying the transcendental and the mundane. It is not by one or the other that a person such as Laura can commune with Christ (or Lizzie). But through the combination of both aspects that one will achieve an almost orgasmic height of a spiritual awakening and salvation. [3]

    As well, by focusing on the eruptive experience of Eucharistic redemption, Rossetti is describing the throws of ecstasy that can be offered on a spiritual level. But only when connected to a material form. The erotic undertones are not necessarily that of desire between the two sisters but rather bodily processing of spiritual experience. By presenting this, Rossetti is showing the link between the two parts of a person. Their body and spirit. As well as how both can influence one another.

    Through the devouring of mortal foods, both the body and soul are left barren, to waste away. Through divine food, ingested by the corporeal form, the incorporeal can experience enlightenment which translates into the physical as otherworldly delight. This allows the soul and the body to be rejuvenated, not just into a new superior form, but to return to past Edenic ideal. An ideal that has escaped mankind since the fall of Eve. It is esoteric and ephemeral to grasp, but there is genuine beauty in the ideas Rossetti is attempting to capture.

    It’s a shame it is only for certain groups of people.

    Anti-Semitism Is More Than Goblins

    To understand the antisemitism at play in Goblin Market, it is first important to comprehend the underlying bigotry in Victorian England and how it pertained to Christina Rossetti. As reported by Cynthia Scheinberg in her excellent book on the Jewish identity in Victorian poetry, the predominant Anglican interaction with Judaism, was appropriation of its texts.[6] And I do mean appropriation, the figures of Jewish scripture were transposed and warped to fit Anglican narratives.

    Mother of Moses (1860) by Simeon Solomon
    Retrieved From: ArtNet
    Note: This is an image of Jochebed (Left), Miriam (Right) and Moses (Baby). It was the only piece I could find containing Miriam painted by someone Jewish

    For example in Aurora Leigh, written by Rossetti’s peer Elizabeth Browning, there is use of the Hebrew figure Miriam.[6] Miriam is an prominent person within the Hebrew Bible, being the elder sister of Moses and a major prophetess, but possessing significantly less importance in Anglican theology. However, the poem transforms her from a leader of the Jewish women out of Egypt, to the proclaimer of virtuosity for Anglican women. In this way her religious and ethnic identity is wiped to bolster the ego of the dominant religion.

    This on it’s own sounds pretty harmful, but gets worse when you understand more historical context. Judaism was, and still is, a persecuted minority ethno-religion. That is a religious movement with inextricable ties to certain ethnic groups and cultures. At the time Rossetti and Browning were writing, Jewish people were not allowed to be representatives in parliament.[6] Additionally, they were constantly under pressure by Victorian culture to convert. Organisations like the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge (SPCK), were missionary agencies with the goal of promoting Anglican values. By which I mean coercing individuals to convert, including Jewish people. An organisation that Christina Rossetti was not only a part of but wrote for as her book, Seek and Find was published through it.

    Not only this, but there are two poems which Scheinberg points to as typifying Rossetti’s antisemitic views.[6] “By The Waters of Babylon. B.C. 570” and “Christian And Jew”. The former reimagines the Jewish narrative of their exile from Babylon, using the Book of Lamentations. In the original scripture the point of view figure, Jeremiah, weeps for his kinsmen as their plea to be saved is unheard by God. But he also provides hope and security in the knowledge that all will be forgiven and the Jewish people will be able to commune with God in time.

    The Lamentations of Jeremiah by
    Fritz Eichenberg
    Retrieved From: filozofskoteoloski

    However, in Rossetti’s version, there is no hope for their redemption in the eyes of God. Like the Babylonians, the Jewish culture not only has fallen into the annals of history but should remain there.[6] Because the scriptures of Judaism are superseded by that of the Christians. This goes so far, that Jeremiah (like Miriam) is transformed from a Jewish figure, into an Anglican one. Becoming a prophet for the eventual arrival of Christ as a Lord and saviour. A belief not held in traditional Jewish theology.

    This trend is maintained through, “Christian and Jew” which features a dialogic narrative between representations of the two religions. The Christian is viewed favourably, able to see and hear the beauty of Heaven, whilst having the agency to sing for the Lord himself and spread his word.[6] Whereas the Jewish stand-in is impotent in spirituality, unable to see paradise and relying on the Christian to truly recognize God. Moreover, the Jewish figure is passive, unable to act and simply is there to receive the proselytisation of the Christian. In other words, Rossetti views Christianity as the only possible connection to God.

    With all of this, we can see how Rossetti views Judaism and the Jewish people. As historic. A history that is best forgotten about or overwritten, with the more enlightened Anglican narrative guiding any and all scripture it can steal. As well as positioning the Jewish people as unable to commune with God, needing the patronising saviourship of the Anglicans to become true believers. And this belief bleeds into Goblin Market.

    A Closed Off Market

    Scheinberg contends that the fruits on offer at the Goblin Market, are not just stand ins for the sexual marketplace or the emptiness of mortal carnality.[6] But rather the words of the Hebrew Bible. The phrase that opens Goblin Market is a reference to Isaiah 55, where Isaiah implores the people to come buy the wine and honey of God. Suggesting a marketplace that offers spiritual sustenance for the Jewish people from God. And as shown previously, it would not be the first time Rossetti cribbed from Tanakh, to create warped comparisons.

    Goblin Market (1933) by Arthur Rackham
    Retrieved From: British Fairies

    In this interpretation, the fall of Laura is not an analogue to Eve, but rather a representation to a more contemporary issue for Rossetti. The temptation of the Jewish scriptures for poor innocent Anglican girls. A theology that promises succulent fruits and delights, but offers no spiritual satisfaction.[6] Abandoning those tempted by it to be eternally wanton. This can then be linked to our previous discussion on the Eucharist. As the hollow food offered by Victorian society is now replaced by the malnutrition of the Hebrew Bible.

    We can even witness how some of the effects of Laura’s torment reflect Rossetti’s view of Judaism:

    “Her hair grew thin and grey;

    She dwindled, as the fair full moon doth turn

    To swift decay and burn

    Her fire away.”[2]

    Laura ages quickly and dwindles as time passes, an echo of Rossetti’s view about Jewish beliefs. As decrepit and decayed, the fire that once ignited them with divine passion, now burnt out after their exile from the Lord. Furthermore, Laura dreams of a desert-like oasis, filled with luscious fruit she can at once imbibe.[2] A paradisal garden compared to her current state of complete desolation, yet still a barren dream, harkening back to imagery of Jewish exile. The description feels eerily reminiscent of those presented in Rossetti’s more blatantly anti-Semitic poems.

    Furthering this, the Eucharistic act between Laura and Lizzie, is not solely redemption from the ills of man. But can be viewed as scene where the carrier of Jewish religion is transformed into a state of innocent Anglicanism. As Scheinberg notes, the use of wormwood to describe the burning sensation Laura feels, has parallels to Lamentations.[6] In it, wormwood is used to allude to the pain suffered by wrath of God as well as the punishment of false prophets. Therefore, we can suppose Laura is experiencing the wrath of God and being punished for the consumption of erroneous beliefs. A belief that must be purged from her blood.

    And this redemption of Laura comes from Lizzie transforming the fruits of the goblin men, the scriptures of the Jewish faith, into Anglican evangelism. The fruits that drag her sister into unrecognisable cataplexy, become the antidote because Lizzie embodies an Anglican Christ. It’s hard not to interpret this as an almost masturbatory self-congratulation of Rossetti’s own work. Of her ability to transform the heathen Jewish scriptures into divine Christian panaceas. That Lizzie is a self-insert of Rossetti in more ways than one.

    But even if you do not buy Scheinberg’s framing, there is undeniable appropriation of Jewish theology for an Anglican poem. Even with the benefit of the doubt, a benefit I do not believe Rossetti worthy of, her poem extends Anglican writer’s general trend of reappropriating Jewish texts. Of using a marginalised people’s beliefs when convenient, then side-lining their opinions or humanity. Because even if we accept this as a more generalised Anglican narrative. It joins a litany of works like it, that frame Anglicanism as the sole legitimate redemptive religion. A marketplace of spirituality that will only save someone, if they revoked their deeply held beliefs and ethnic identity. All for the sake of pleasing a saviour complex.

    Combining a Dual Nature

    In the closing of this analysis, I wish to provide a relevant quote from Scheinberg, within her book:

    “This idea that anti-Semitism can be a tool for generating complex artistic texts is a useful way to move past the idea that so-called “great art” cannot contain deeply problematic ideological content.”[6]

    Rossetti’s Goblin Market, is not solely a tale of feminist emanciptation and the power of sisterhood. Rossetti’s proximity to power through her wealth and devoutness leads to her uncritically accepting some of the worst bigotry of her time. The fight of first wave feminism is in many ways, reflected in the dual nature of Goblin Market. There is an emphasis on women as equals to men, as able to help within society in their own unique way. But there is equally silent emphasis in those left out of such rhetoric, in the types of women considered to be worth redeeming.

    It is critical that we recognise the sisters left out of such sisterhood, in the exemption of the experiences that lay outside Anglican views. Rossetti deliberately leaves out the perspectives of those who she does not believe to be worthy of saving and instead writes of them disparagingly in her other works. Her devout religiosity is what lends this text such depth and beauty. As well as what makes it warped and disgusting.

    I will not advise you how to feel about this poem. My own feelings are incredibly complex, and I do not know if I will ever reach a resolution. But I implore you to sit with the ramifications of this and other pieces of art. To consider how these frameworks might alter your understanding of the most lauded creations. It is only in completely dismissing critique and analysis of the media we enjoy, that we fail to genuinely cherish and appreciate it. In idle acceptance of art, we deny ourselves the opportunity to satiate our curiosity and satisfy our souls with the complexities of human creation.

    Thank you for reading, I would love to see all your thoughts about the religious themes of Goblin Market. Tune in next fortnight, where we will be dissecting the more modern and sapphic interpretations of Goblin Market. Until next time.

    References

    1. Carpenter, M. W. (2017). ‘Eat Me, Drink Me, Love Me’: The Consumable Female Body in Christina Rossetti’s Goblin Market. In Victorian Women Poets (pp. 212-232). Routledge.
    2. Rossetti, C.G (1862). Goblin Market and other poems. Cambridge London. Macmillan.
    3. Hill, M. (2005). “Eat Me, Drink Me, Love Me”: Eucharist and the Erotic Body in Christina Rossetti’s Goblin Market. Victorian Poetry, 43(4), 455–472.
    4. Casey, J. G. (1991). The Potential of Sisterhood: Christina Rossetti’s” Goblin Market”. Victorian Poetry, 29(1), 63-78.
    5. Bell, M. (1898). Christina Rossetti: A biographical and critical study. T. Burleigh.
    6. Scheinberg, C. (2002). Women’s Poetry and Religion in Victorian England: Jewish identity and Christian culture. Cambridge, UK .
  • Constructing A Goblin Market

    Constructing A Goblin Market

    Content Notes: Discussions of Colonisation, Homophobia, Incest, Pathologisation of Women, Sexual Assault and Rape

    Christina Rossetti’s Goblin Market is a classical piece of feminist poetry. Admired by many women, especially with the rise of second wave feminism, it has spawned numerous intellectual discussions about the experience of femininity in Victorian England and beyond. It was also quoted in one of the best episodes of modern Doctor Who, which is how I initially came to learn about the poem. So join me, as we take a peek into the historical context behind the Goblin Market.

    The Beginning of A Market

    Christina Rossetti was born in 1830 within London. [1] Her father, Gabriel, was a well-known poet and her mother, Frances, is most known for being related to famous people, according to Wikipedia.[2] Her family was filled with creative people, like her uncle John Polidori who wrote The Vampyre, considered to be one of the first modern vampire story. [3] She was somewhat of a prodigy, being first published at the age of 12, proving that anyone can be an acclaimed pre-pubescent author. If you have a grandfather with a publishing company. Truly the Christopher Paolini of her time.

    Goblin Market was published in 1862, although drafts had been being made in at least 1859.[4] I am going to provide a brief overview as to the plot, and will have snippets where necessary, but I encourage you to read it in full. Like all poems, the experience of reading Goblin Market add to the perspectives and will provide necessary context for interpretations. If reading is not your style then there is an audio version of the tale featuring excellent voice acting by Shirley Henderson.

    Portrait of Christina Rossetti (1877) by Dante Gabriel Rossetti
    Retrieved From: Apollo Magazine

    Our story begins with two sisters, Lizzie and Laura. They live in a small Edenic cottage, isolated from the larger cities around. One day, as the two are venturing out, they hear the sounds of a goblin market in the woods nearby. Although Lizzie resists the sumptuous temptations, Laura is enamoured with the burgeoning fruits, despite her sister’s protestations. Laura indulges in the culinary delights; each described with lurid eroticism. All for the small price of a lock of hair. She eats till she can eat no more, stuffed and unable to tell night from day, before heading back to her Lizzie.

    However, as time passes Laura becomes increasingly withdrawn. The first night without the fruits, she stays awake, gnawing and gnashing at the idea of the delights. She tries growing a seed from the leftovers of the goblin market but it never sprouts. Ultimately, Laura becomes completely devoid of life, her hair growing grey and overall is passive in demeanour. Worst of all, though Lizzie can still hear the goblin market, her desperate sister cannot. Lizzie is unable to bear this any longer. Therefore with a silver coin in her purse, she goes to the goblin market to obtain some fruit for her sister.

    The trip is not as easy as she would like. At the start, the goblin men try enticing Lizzie to partake in a feast, though she is steadfast in merely wanting to buy fruit. The goblin men then hurl insults at her before resorting to assaulting Lizzie. The attack is portrayed a form of metaphorical rape, because although she is never sexually defiled, the description of the violation is carnally coded. Lizzie remains stalwart, never partaking in the fruit even as the juices drip onto her face. Eventually, the goblin men give up, throwing Lizzie’s silver coin back at her. Lizzie then runs back to her sister.

    Goblin Market (1933) by Arthur Rackham
    Retrieved From: Apollo Magazine

    The revival of Laura is also quite sexually charged, but is much more rejoiceful. Lizzie bursts into the house, filled with ecstatic delight as she encourages her sister to:

    “Eat Me, Drink Me, Love Me”[5]

    Whilst the sisters never perform a wanton act, the two are in the throws of ecstasy. On top of which, Laura feels intense pain intermingling with her delight. They slurp and lick and bite and kiss, partaking in each others bodies like fruit. But after this trial, Laura is rejuvenated, transformed back to her old self once more. The sisters celebrate, with the poem ending by mentioning the two girls have become wives and Laura telling her kids the value of sisterhood.

    There are many places one can begin needing to explain historical context, but the most important is likely the part that flies over the head of most people. That is unless you know “Eat Me, Drink Me, Love Me” is a reference to the Eucharist. Don’t worry I didn’t either until three papers in. When it was explicitly stated. Even though two of the papers employed the phrase in reference to religious interpretations.

    But to discuss the religious roots of this poem in a later essay, I am going to have to talk about some history now.

    Devouring Christ

    Anglican is the term used to describe the Church of England, that is the majority religion of the UK. It was conceived after Henry VIII decided commitment was overrated and wanted to acquire a new wife. Lamentably, the Catholics rather despise the idea of divorce, so Henry VIII made his own denomination. This Church of England constituted part of the larger Protestant Reformation, which would require an entire essay to accurately dissect. All you need to know is England wasn’t the only one breaking away from the Italian church. Also, to my UK readers, I am going to use Anglican for ease instead of Protestant to refer to the Church of England and its adherents. Because although British Anglicans call themselves Protestants, that term comprises multiple subsections of Christianity.

    When Christina Rossetti was writing, the Anglicans had been stable in England for a good 200 years. Minus that time we became Puritans and the Anglicans were banned. As with all religions, they began to be bored of the traditions they used. Specifically a movement called the Oxford or Tractarian Movement was brewing.[6] The Oxford Movement was spearheaded by some of the higher ups in the English Church, who believed Anglicans should move to a more Catholic oriented view of theology. It originated in a series of essays called “Tracts for The Times”, hence Tractarian. This resulted in the Anglo-Catholicism movement, which was a melding of the two worlds, as well as some Anglicans diverging to the Catholic Church.

    The Last Supper, Restored (1495–1498) by Leonardo Da Vinci
    Retrieved From: Wikipedia

    However, the crucial point of contention that is of interest for us today is the Eucharist. This is when a person eats the Body of Christ and the Blood of Christ in the form of bread and wine. Or if you are a child, Vimto. The Eucharist comes about due to a section of the Bible called The Last Supper, where Jesus and his disciples eat bread and wine. Though accounts differ depending on which section of the Bible is recounting the story, emphasis is placed on the holy connection between Christ’s material form and the meal. In common Christian theology, Paul (one of Jesus’ disciples), then insitutes the Eucharist as a ritualistic celebration of God. But, because of differing accounts and time between the Bible’s writing and Victorian Anglicanism, there emerged two Anglican interpretations of the Eucharist.

    First is Virtualism, the idea that presence of Christ in the bread and wine is purely spiritual and possessed no bodily substance. [6] Put differently, they are not consuming Christ’s body in any tangible way, but instead through the Eucharist are filled with the spirit of God. Conversely there was Receptionism, which focused on the worthiness and goodness of the person partaking in the Eucharist, as opposed to the food. In this way, God uses the bread and wine to commune with the person, so they otherwise intangibly recieve the Blood and Body of Christ. These two are clearly offering a more intangible (and frankly esoteric) interpretation of the Eucharist. But The Oxford Movement subscribed to another view.

    To express it simply, they believed that when someone performed the Eucharist, they were eating the Body and Blood of Christ .However, it is not a straightforward case of psudeocannibalism. As Marylu Hill describes, the belief by Anglicans within the Oxford Movement was that the bread and wine represent God’s words made digestible to humans. [6] Practitioners at the time compared the Eucharist to breastfeeding mothers. Like a mother transforms food into milk for her baby to feed, so too does God formulate his love into a digestible form. Essentially, the bread and wine, were both materially food as well as the Body and Blood of Christ. They profoundly believed the Eucharist was soul food in a literal sense, capable of redeeming those who had lost their way.

    But even more so, the Eucharist satiated people’s spiritual hunger. Around this time, many Anglican theologians were looking back at early Christian writers and being inspired by their works. And these works focused frequently on how the teachings of God, could satisfy the hunger of people in a way nothing else was able to. Edward Pusey, an important Anglican Theologian, focused on translating and teaching these interpretations. [6] In his translation of Saint Augustine’s writing is the following:

    “But I hungered and thirsted . . . after Thee Thyself, the Truth . . .yet they still set before me in those dishes, glittering fantasies. . . .Yet because I thought them to be Thee, I fed thereon; not eagerly, for Thou didst not in them taste to me as Thou art; for Thou wast not these emptinesses, nor was I nourished by them, but exhausted rather.”[6]

    From this we are able to tell that Saint Augustine, and by extension the Oxford Movement Anglicans, believed the world was teeming with fantasies that one can feed on. But those material indulgences are nothing when compared to the word of God, to his spiritual food that can fill our every want and desire. As I will talk about in the following essay, Christina Rossetti was absolutely inspired by Eucharist debates of the time. But first, lets get more specific about Rossetti’s Anglicanism.

    Devoting Time

    The history of Christina Rossetti is a relatively challenging thing to piece together. As reviewed by Mary Carpenter, the poet’s life around the time of Goblin Market is mostly relayed through her brother William. Unluckily, for us, William did not retain the most accurate recollection. He failed to recall the separate orders his sister Mary joined and did not know when Christina began carrying out social work. [4] Consequently, take the specifics of her with a pinch of salt. Furthermore, we will have to talk of the general institutions she was a part of since there is little reliable information on her personal life.

    Christina Rossetti was involved consistently with her church, Christ Church, which she joined in 1843. [6] At some point before 1859, she began volunteering at the sisterhood adjoined to the church called All Saints Margaret Street. These sisterhoods were institutions for middle class Anglican women to volunteer and devote time to serving the working class. They were not religious orders like a nunnery, but rather open to all women who attended the church. Whilst some would focus explicitly on sex workers, All Saints seemed to utilize a more generalised approach. By the end of the 1860s, All Saints would have: an asylum for older women, an industrial school for girls, an orphanage and a nursing service.

    Portrait of Edward Pusey (~1875) by Rosa Corder
    Retrieved From: Art UK
    Fun Fact: Rosa Corder allegedly made forgeries of Dante Rossetti’s art (Christina’s brother)

    The church itself was a hotbed for social reform as well as for the Oxford Movement. Edward Pusey preached and lectured multiple times whilst Rossetti was known to attend the Church. So, as Mary Carpenter states, it is not unlikely she was exposed to these contemporary ideas.[4] Moreover Pusey was a significant proponent of social work through sisterhood, having been integral in the creation of All Saints. Although in Carpenter’s view, he saw the sisterhood as:

    “A sanctified domestic enclave of perpetual daughters”[4]

    To put it in simpler terms Pusey, and many men like him, viewed these sisterhoods in a rather patronising and patriarchal lens. The volunteers of All Saints, including Rossetti, were viewed by the higher ups as youthful innocents who’s religious purity would help to liberate fallen women.[4] But this perceived purity, also resulted in many male liturgists fearing for these sisterhoods. Some worried that by being exposed to sex workers, these women would rebel against their roles as subservient humble wives to men. Since sex work began through small rebellions against God, these middle class women would also fall into the same vices. An idea with a substantial basis in reality. [No citation found]

    Those fears were part of a broader trend in English culture of disgust towards sex workers. The Contagious Disease Act of 1860, was the epitome of this fear, as it controlled and criminalised certain sexual activity due to worry over “degenerate hereditary” and syphilis.[4] Naturally, this was typically implemented against women’s sexuality, especially marginalised women. If you want to know how close to home that was for Christina, her brother Dante wrote a poem called Jenny. A poem which espouses the fear of sex workers diseased minds and contagious environments:

    “For is there hue or shape defin’d

    In Jenny’s desecrated mind,

    Where all contagious currents meet,

    A Lethe of the middle street?” [8]

    But for the women working in these sisterhoods, it was a contrasting experience. The idea of social work sisterhoods originated with Florence Nightingale. Nightingale was a British nurse in the Crimean War, a war between Russia and France, with Britain allying with the French. All British people take a moment to expel your disgust. She was most known for her radical medical changes to wartime treatment, including insistence on cleaning the hospital barracks and disposing of waste products. Regrettably, these were revolutionary ideas for the time. Amongst these was another revolutionary idea, this time a more feminist one. The idea that women, even those who were unmarried, have worth in providing aid to people that cannot provide for themselves. Primarily if they work together in sisterhoods.

    Photograph of Florence Nightingale (1860) by Henry Hering
    Retrieved From: Wikipedia

    Nowadays, this idea can seem somewhat milquetoast, but it faced considerable backlash. Men at the time warned that single women working, especially together, would result in them being displaced from their “natural” position.[4] Additionally, this displacement would not just be unacceptable for sub-par men, but would also cause the fall of the British Empire! How awful, indeed. The idea that women can work together to uplift and transform the world, established such an impression on Rossetti that she tried to join Nightingale. And she was only turned away because she was too young. The idea of sisterhood and women being the ones to save each other, is evident in Goblin Market from even the most cursory glance.

    However, I do want to conclude this section with a little bit of a reality check. Whilst these sisterhood orders, secular and religious alike, were revolutionary for the time. Do not misinterpret them as perfect bastions of care. To begin with, the emphasis of spiritual healing is an extension of common colonialist practices at the time. That through God (only the Anglican one, though) people can be made whole. And so, we should ignore or override other people’s spiritual and religious beliefs. Even more secular institutions can be rather impotent to soothe individuals mentally and spiritually, if it fell outside their view of Christian values. As well Anglican values were often weaponised against the people Britain colonised, usually as an excuse to not assist them. Or to only aid them with the condition of nominally appearing Christian.

    In addition, this was an inherently classist system as it was always middle class Anglican women performing the care. And I am not against the prosperous devoting time and money to helping those less fortunate. However, these institutions perpetuated dehumanising rhetoric and did not allow the people most disadvantaged to have a voice. This is what led to elderly people being locked away in asylums for the crime of aging, or young girls kicked out of their only shelter for normal childhood behaviour. Never mind the mistreatment or lack of empathy given to those with disabilities. The sisterhoods did promote class understanding, but only on the basis of the established culture in Victorian England. Not to directly challenge it at multiple intersections.

    Sappho’s Sisterhood

    It is inevitable in Goblin Market to consider comparison between the distinctive tones of eroticism within separate scenes. With Laura and the goblins, the focus is on excess, on devouring until you are incapable of doing so any more. With Lizzie and the goblins, it is on spiteful hatred and violence enacted against her. And when the two sisters are together, it is treated as painful but beautiful and filled with rejoicing. Since the latter section is the one most positively described by the narrative, many have inspected this through a sapphic lens. That is to say, what if Laura and Lizzie were intended to represent gay lovers?

    Whilst I will not go into detail about the different homosexual interpretations available today. I do want to provide some history to Victorian lesbian views and how we can understand lesbianism in literature from oppressive cultures. And Victorian Britain was indeed oppressive to lesbians. Contrary to popular belief, as written by Jonathon Hay, the Victorian culture regarded sapphics with great disgust.[9] Whilst any woman who had an ounce sexual desire could be regarded as a nymphomaniac, lesbians in particular represented:

    “the great damage of young girls and neuropathic women”[10]

    Indeed whilst gay men faced the brunt of the criminalisation and pathologisation, women, and especially women who loved other women, were not immune to being pathologised. For an apt and timely comparison, think about how in modern day Britain, trans women are a major target of transphobic institutions and rhetoric. But this does not lessen the discrimination faced by trans men nor would one say that British society is more forgiving or kinder to them. Because ultimately, the hope is that by targeting one, all others within a similar umbrella will be equally persecuted. It is just more politically convenient to target certain groups.

    The homophobia within British society was so severe that Hay recounts a lesbian couple in a boarding school, who hid their relationship in plain sight.[9] Instead of being physically intimate or even speaking to one another, it was through non verbal gestures and movements of their eyes, that love was indicated and reciprocated. Hardly the hallmark of a society with a passive view of women’s homosexuality. Even famous lesbians of the time period like Anne Lister, felt the need to hide their indiscrete rendezvous with other women. Because if they didn’t, there would be societal backlash or institutionalisation.

    Carmilla by Joanna Ostrowska
    Retrieved From: Artstation

    So there should be no surprise that any literature of the time that wished to have sapphic characters would have to hide or alter the homosexuality. For example, in Carmilla by Sheridan Le Fanu, the lesbian relationship is masked by the monstrousness of the vampire Carmilla and her eventual death. Essentially, killing off the active lesbian to not seem too supportive as well as portraying her as inhuman and predatory for her sexual desires. With Goblin Market, Hay argues the obfuscation comes from the inherent incestuousness of the relationship, as well as the ending making them return to heterosexual bliss. [9] By doing so, any homosexuality is easily written off as metaphorical, and viewed as interpretive. Because no one is going to think that acts between sisters is meant to be perceived as sexual, especially when they return to the social norm.

    Now here’s the thing. I am not arguing that Rossetti intended for this to be sapphic in any of these essays. On the balance of what I’ve learned about Rossetti, she is deeply Anglican and certainly susceptible to the bigotry of the time. One of her poems literally glorifies the British colonisation of India and viewing Indians as savage rapists.[5] Therefore, it seems unlikely that she intended this to be a tale on lesbians. But her tale, whether she intended to or not, is very queer for the time.

    In centring feminine sexuality within a usually wholesome female relationship, she is countering narratives that taught women to hide and be ashamed of it. And by having sisterhood turn into erotic delight, she is making use of narrative tactics employed by lesbian writers of the time, to hide their homosexual desires and messaging. So if even unintentionally, the poem has a clear way of being viewed through a queer lens. Because it showcased woman on woman eroticism, without appealing to a male heterosexual audience. And that is an important step to make in writing and poetry for gay literature, even if it was not done deliberately. It helped inspire sapphic artists later on to make their work in this vein and to improve on the limitations. That inspiration should be acknowledged and treated with care.

    But, with all that being said, I hope you have enjoyed this deep dive into the historical context of Christina Rossetti’s Goblin Market. In the next essay, I will cover how Rossetti combines the religious and the transcendental erotic, within the poem. Thank you for reading! Until next time.

    References

    1. Academy of American Poets. (2019). About Christina Rossetti | Academy of American Poets. Retrieved From: Poets.org
    2. Wikipedia Contributors. (2025). Frances Polidori. Retrieved From: Wikipedia
    3. Little, R. (2020). Homoerotic Vampirism in” Goblin Market” and Carmilla. Furman Humanities Review, 31(1), 69-80.
    4. Carpenter, M. W. (2017). ‘Eat Me, Drink Me, Love Me’: The Consumable Female Body in Christina Rossetti’s Goblin Market. In Victorian Women Poets (pp. 212-232). Routledge.
    5. Rossetti, C.G (1862). Goblin Market and other poems. Cambridge London. Macmillan.
    6. Hill, M. (2005). “Eat Me, Drink Me, Love Me”: Eucharist and the Erotic Body in Christina Rossetti’s Goblin Market. Victorian Poetry, 43(4), 455–472.
    7. Casey, J. G. (1991). The Potential of Sisterhood: Christina Rossetti’s” Goblin Market”. Victorian Poetry, 29(1), 63-78.
    8. Rossetti, D. G. (1913). The Poetical Works of Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Ed. with Preface by William M. Rossetti.
    9. Hay, J. (2018). Queer Victorian Identities in Goblin Market (1862) and In Memoriam (1850): Uncovering the Subversive Undercurrents of the Literary Canon. Exclamat!on: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 2, 149-17277#
    10. G. Bouchereau (1880-1900). ‘Nymphomania’ , in Ledger, S., & Luckhurst, R. (Eds.). (2000). The fin de siècle: A Reader in Cultural History, c. 1880-1900. Oxford University Press.
  • Kuchisake-Onna, Feminist Monster?

    Kuchisake-Onna, Feminist Monster?

    Content Notes: Discussion of Child Murder, Misogyny and Mutilation

    In my previous two articles, we have discussed the origins and a myriad of possible interpretations for the tale of Kuchisake-Onna. However, the feminist themes of this mythical character have had more ink spilled than any other framework. So join me, as we uncover the femininity of Kuchisake-Onna and if her story can help you too.

    Objectifying Subjection

    We are all familiar with the idea of beauty being tied to goodness. It’s a form of Halo Effect, where a desirable attribute leads to us misjudging a person’s character or actions.[1] Essentially, since attractiveness leads to our initial impression of a person being favourable, this frames any future judgement in a complimentary light. However, when the Halo Effect meets femininity, there is an unusual cross section. Because attractiveness in women comes with benefits and equal drawbacks.

    In standard philosophy there is the object and the subject. The object is an entity which is perceived but cannot observe, and the subject is that which perceives others. When we talk of women being objectified, this is what is meant. A woman is, by most standards, a subject capable of perception and judgement. But within certain media portrayals she is relegated to an object, to an item for the (usually heterosexual male) characters and audience to perceive without having to consider her view.

    An object also lacks agency. They are incapable of enacting or interacting with the world in any meaningful way. To be objectified is not simply to be admired as if you were a crass statue, but also to be denied your ability to act. This can be as straightforward as a piece of media disregarding a woman’s desires in a story. Or as blatant as the authorial approval of the character being dominated or possessed by a man.

    Megan Fox in Transformers (2007), Produced by Paramount Pictures
    Retrieved From: IMDB

    Whilst this objectification can happen to any woman in media, it is most apparent with those deemed attractive. In books this creates the “Breasting Boobily” phenomenon, where the sexually attractive features of a woman are constantly highlighted, to the point of absurdity. In film and TV, this is accomplished by cameras lingering over the desirable parts of the character, focusing and framing their sexual attractiveness as their most important aspect. In art it results waist to hip ratios that would make insects blush. An attractive woman’s identity comprises only her physical form, that which the audience can instantly perceive, rather than any other characteristics or facets of personality.

    With Kuchisake-Onna, part of her horror comes from firstly conforming to these expectations and then subverting them. Her beauty creates a Halo Effect and places her as an object within her own story. She is considered to be harmless or even virtious by the target. In addition, she is usually admired solely for her beauty. Like a piece of street art, the narrative regards her as something to be lecherously enjoyed. Some stories even portray her as a sex worker, a group known explicitly to face dehumanising objectification.

    But with the revealing of her slit mouth, Kuchisake-Onna goes from an object of desire to a subject enacting sadism. The narrative switches, transforming her into the one who is perceiving her victim. She delights in her macabre questioning and the slaying or “improvement” of the object. But this not only changes her status in the story, but the entire perception of her character.

    Don’t Lie by Dark134
    Retrieved From: Deviantart

    The Halo Effect disappears as her true form is revealed and she becomes monstrous. I understand some people have…intense feelings about the slit mouth woman. But the most pervasive and intended narrative is one in which the carnal appetite of the victim and audience are rebuked. She becomes an active agent against the desires imposed upon her. And therefore becomes a horrifying subversion of narrative expectation.

    Unwomanly Virus

    Barbara Creed argues in the The Monstrous Feminine, that femininity is deemed as evil because although it is feebler than masculinity, it’s framed more carnal and without restraint. [2] She contrasts this with Julia Kristeva’s idea of “The Clean and Proper Body”. This is a symbolic body that all should strive to achieve, one of artifice, that exhibits no sign of natural degradation. Creed states this symbol is particularly difficult for feminine bodies to maintain, due to the trials of motherhood, puberty and loftier sexist standards. But if one can accomplish this task, you then become the pinnacle of artificial femininity, devoid of the usual degrading associations.

    Obviously Kuchisake-Onna’s body, particularly the slit mouth, automatically excludes her from such ideals. But it is within a method of wounding her victims that a more unusual connection can be revealed. When answering her questions with “yes” both times, most stories say she slices the person’s mouth with her scythe, granting them her trademark look. A direct interpretation would be ironic punishment. For saying she is pretty, in a morbid way, she makes you pretty too. You could extend this further saying that the punishment for appeasing vanity is to have your own beauty marred. To fawn and placate such ideals allows them to ruin you.

    Created by Jenna Whyte
    Retrieved From: Instagram

    But using the idea of The Clean and Proper Body, we can see Kuchisake-Onna as a defeminising monster. The threat of carving a person’s face is not just an attack on bodily integrity. For women, it is an assault on their Clean and Proper Body. The slashing of their face not only renders them as hideous as Kuchisake-Onna, but as defeminised as her. They lose a core part of their identity. Their gender. Or at least, the way they have been able to express their gender until now.

    When paired with the Halo Effect, to have your attractiveness and body scarred becomes a mark on the entirety of your life. Your goodness is lessened. Your social status tanks. Even your personality could drastically change due to how you’re treated in the aftermath. The threat of a slit mouth for women is a complex intertwining of societal and physical repercussions.

    But even more so, it shows the fragility of such concepts. Like glass, the idea of a Clean and Proper Body is pristine and beautiful. But also cracks under the slightest amount of pressure. A fundamental chip in such a body becomes a pox, an indelible sign of ruin that cannot be revoked. The horror for women is not solely in death. But in the idea that the sexist ideals they must take on to survive can be freely broken. It takes one accident, one problem, a isolated event going wrong and their body shatters. With one mistake they cannot control, they become Kuchisake-Onna.

    A Monstrous Femininenon

    In her essay, Monstrous Women, Dianne Taylor posits that women become monsters when they fail to be feminine.[3] Taylor relates this to the fact women are less likely to receive the death penalty in the USA, arguing it is not solely benevolent sexism. Instead, for any one woman to be considered for the death penalty she must be:

    “incorrigible, irredeemable because she is thoroughly immune to refeminization —a monster”

    In her eyes, immunity to re-feminisation is monstrous because of how it violates both biological and social laws. Using the works of Foucault, she states that key to the judicial power of modern governments is the idea that individuals can be corrected, usually through punitive measures. But to be corrected one must accept a norm to follow, an ideal standard of what it is to be good. For men and women this is different, but frequently relies on the reuptake of gendered norms. And especially for women, biological and personality based norms intermingle as if they are one.

    A woman is not separate in character to a man because of environmental factors, at least according to dominant social narratives. Instead, it is her [Insert Relevant Pseudoscientific Explanation]. Whether it is wandering womb, the curse of oestrogen or that pesky underdeveloped pre-frontal cortex, a sexist society will always find a way to justify women’s supposed inferiority. And if a woman is smarter, more athletic, more rational or otherwise supersedes men in masculinity? Then she is showing the fragility of such norms. In refusing to go back into the feminine domain, she is violating both biological and social truths that society is built upon. [3] And becomes a monster to society at large.

    A Clinical Lesson at the Salpêtrière (1887) by André Brouillet
    Retrieved From: Wikipedia

    In this way, we can identify how Kuchisake-Onna violates these cornerstones. Whilst undeniably irrational, she is always portrayed as outcompeting men in athleticism and sadism. In doing so, she establishes her dominance over men quite easily, capable of inflicting bodily harm in a way foreign to most of them. As well although not traditionally smart, her manipulative tactics demonstrate how she can outsmart men by undermining their expectations of logical answers. This contradicts ideals of rationality, causing a terrifying breakdown in the norms of conversation which may end up in an unfortunate demise.

    In addition part of the horror is in the lack of explanation for her violations. There can be comfort gained from developing an understanding of how a person would break away from norms. These explanations do not need to be true, instead they merely have to contain enough verisimilitude to placate the person’s fears. It is never explicit stated if Kuchisake-Onna is just a hysterical woman, a supernaturally powered ghost, a demon or anything else. By never having a apparent grounding of who or what she really is, a sense of safety in knowledge is impossible to reach. Therefore, the person is confronted with an unknowable dread for a humanoid monster they will be impotent to fully comprehend.

    Slicing The Glass Ceiling

    But we can get even more specific with Kuchisake-Onna’s breaking of normative ideals. Ryden Shartle provides an excellent summarisation of the history of feminism in Japan.[4] This additionally provides a detailed background for the specific sexist norms perpetuated in 20th century. The 1920s saw a frequent scientific rationalisation for women performing housework, domestic hygiene and other activities, for the betterment of the Japanese people. This selflessness as feminine virtue was expanded in the 30s, with women being corralled to volunteer in making care packages and performing nursing duties in the army.

    Next (hopefully shocking no-one) there was the US occupation. This saw a time period where women were provided more rights, in hopes of instilling fewer sexist values…Oh wait, sorry I got that wrong. It was in the hopes of limiting Japanese military power. Lovely. After the US left, the Japanese government focused on reversing this and encouraging feminine education. This sounds pleasant, but it was principally activities like home economics and flower arranging. The idea behind this is that by having separate spheres for men and women, Japan would catch up with the US. One can provide for the home, and the other can provide valuable work, therefore maximising efficiency.

    Before the 70s, a lot of Japanese feminism even exemplified sexual differences, focusing on women’s roles as mothers and caretakers to gain more rights.[4] But then came the Ūman Ribu movement, a transliteration of women’s lib. Combining international thought with Japanese feminism, the Ribu movement was the first time that women sought to challenge men’s cordoning of roles in a unified manner. This revolved around radical feminist challenges for what it meant to be a woman in Japanese society. As well as the role they could play both individually and within the society. Which is around the same time a certain folkloric monster began to rise to prominence.

    Kuchisake-Onna by Wolf-Ram
    Retrieved From: Deviantart

    As opposed to selfless virtuosity, Kuchisake-Onna seems entirely rooted in selfish sadism or malicious madness. It is never fully expounded on, but through various texts and writings, the common through-line seems to be that she is just a cruel monster. It is her nature, either through jealously, spite or misanthropy to injure others with no feminine motive. In fact, as commented on by Taylor, the act of sadistic murder is itself considered to be masculine.[3] To delight in harm, to enjoy the process and to come out the other end unforgiving, is counter to any ideals of feminine selflessness.

    As well her actions are complete opposite to the idea of a maternal figure. Not only in the evident sense of being a murderess but in being outside of the home, usually in metropolitan areas. Places where it is expected to predominantly witness men at or leaving work. Her mere presence in such a place is a disturbance of the isolated spheres for men and women. In the act of not only existing, but overpowering men within these spaces, she represents a complete reversal of the natural societal order. An uneasy contradiction by her very existence.

    This fear is exacerbated by the fact that the Ribu movement at the time was pioneering such changes. They urged women to occupy men’s spaces in radical ways that deliberately destabilised the sexist ideals that restrained them to the home. But to the men experiencing this destabilisation, considering their security was built on the labour and isolation of women, I’m convinced it looked contiguous to the myth of Kuchisake-Onna. An opinion reinforced by the fact that her tale was largely spread due to male owned women’s magazines sensationalising the story. [5] In a way, her tale can be seen as spreading due to the feared threat and irrelevancy of masculinity at the time. She, like the Ribu feminists, was an inoccent seeming woman attacking masculinity in the very sphere it was meant to propogate.

    Popularity Contests

    Through all of this discussion, you may have gotten the impression that Kuchisake-Onna can be an imperfect feminist icon. That her story of bucking feminine ideals, representing feminist movements and becoming her own subject is empowering. Well, I am not going to fully deny that interpretation. Part of my love of Kuchisake-Onna is because she represents a lot of what I enjoy in stories. She’s a monstrous woman, a biological freak of nature that weaponises her perceived deformities and femininity against the tropes that would imprison her. It is not without merit to recognize something significant and relatable in her tale.

    However, as pointed out by Dianne Taylor, such stories are frequently to the benefit of a sexist society. [3] The violation of norms does not sever them; it instead enables them. Through the monster, a person can justify previous prevailing norms, using the event or story as an argument against the removal of them. As much as I’d love the re-interpretation of Kuchisake-Onna to be more powerful, it is never going to outdo the most conventional narrative. Her tale was, in part, propagated by men and mass media as a way to castigate and shame women. In particular feminists.

    Therefore, even if we as individuals can see Kuchisake-Onna in this way, it would be challenging to reform how most media explores her. I have read through dozens of articles about Kuchisake-Onna, and the non-academic ones invariably portray her as a freak.[6][7][8][9] Even more so, these articles barely mention much of the alternative interpretations of her story. Instead distributing one version of the tale they deem to be the most horrifying and clickbaity. Because complexity is difficult to grapple with. It has taken me over a month to produce a bare minimum amount of research to provide some varying perspectives. And I like reading academic papers.

    Medusa Head by IrenHorrors
    Retrieved From: Deviantart

    This can be seen with other mythological characters as well. I’m certain those reading this will likely be familiar with a plethora of interpretations about Medusa. But, ask most people who aren’t history nerds (or sapphic), and the invariable response will be that she is a villain. An object for the projection of sexist tropes where she is to be slain by a man because she is a monster. Such stories are usually engrained in pop culture. Unless someone wishes to undertake the work to dig deeper, they will never get to the other sides of these narratives.

    But that is not to say we are without hope.

    A Case For Monsters

    Shartle recounts how the Ribu movement focused a lot of work on filicide. [4]At the time, Japan was facing an unprecedented reporting on women killing their children. These mothers were vilified and routinely lambasted as inhuman. But Ribu figures like Yonezu Tomoko argued that whilst filicide can never be condoned, one should blame societal conditions rather than the mothers. These women were often marginalised and desperate. Whether it be poverty, abuse, untreated mental health issues or any other variety of vulnerability. Society failed to care or aid them in any capacity. Therefore, instead of dehumanising, we should empathise.

    To shift the narrative that pits monstrous women as unfeminine, one should not exacerbate the contrast but soften it. By influencing people to empathise with the socially deemed worst of the worst, we can directly threaten and destabilise the sexist tropes that prop them up. Even personally I have seen the efficacy of this. In talking to mothers within my life, the discussion of maternal filicide has come up. And often promoting empathy with these filicidal actions not only helps promote understanding, but allows them to tackle internalised sexist ideals towards themselves. In inviting people to care for a “monster”, they are allowed to realise they too are not a monster.

    Unfortunately, folkloric tales like Kuchisake-Onna end up being too abstract for people to empathise with her. An individual cannot interview Kuchisake-Onna. You cannot witness her crying because of what happen. Nor can you ever follow her consistent growth and change. It is the strength and weakness of folkloric myths that they are shorter and often personalised tales. Weaved to the society, social groups and individuals interpretations of what the tale is.

    I truly believe there is power within stories, but to utilise it we must pick the tales people can relate with. In inciting individuals to examine the monsters society generates, a person can more clearly see themselves in the imposed stigmatisation. Moreover, you can follow the person’s own narrative. How they felt, understood and reckoned with their actions. In essence, you can humanise a monstrous human more than a folkloric figure. And doing so demonstrates that monsters are not real. They exist solely in stories but are transposed onto real life, to constitute a convenient scapegoat for societal ills. In making a case for “monsters”, we make a case for the liberation of all of us.

    Thank you for coming with me on this journey. I hope you enjoyed this mini series on Kuchisake-Onna. I will be back with some musings on one of my favourite poems in a fortnight. Until then, let me know your thoughts below!

    References

    1. Wikipedia Contributors. (2019, April 18). Halo effect. Retrieved from Wikipedia website: Wikipedia
    2. Creed, B. (1993). The Monstrous-Feminine: Film, Feminism, Psychoanalysis. London: Routledge
    3. Taylor, D. (2010). Monstrous women. PhaenEx, 5(2), 125-151.
    4. Shartle, R. (2023). Motherhood, Femininity, and the Body: Reading Representations of the Feminine in Kuchisake-onna (Postwar Japan) (Master’s thesis, Arizona State University).
    5. Michael Dylan Foster. (2009). Pandemonium and Parade. Univ of California Press..
    6. Dowell, C. (2024). The Legend of Kuchisake-onna: Japan’s Slit-Mouthed Woman. Retrieved from: Medium.com
    7. Unknown Author. (2024). The Legend of the Kuchisake-onna: The Slit-Mouthed Woman in Japanese Urban Legends. Retrieved from: Mythology Worldwide
    8. Harvey, A. (2023). Kuchisake Onna: The Vengeful Japanese Spirit That Attacks Victims After Asking “Am I Beautiful?” Retrieved from: All Thats Interesting
    9. Meyer, M. (2024). Kuchisake onna | Yokai.com. Retrieved from Yokai.com website: Yokai.com
  • The Many Faces of Kuchisake-Onna

    The Many Faces of Kuchisake-Onna

    Content Notes: Discussions of Ableism, Castration, Classism, Misogyny and Vagina Dentata

    In my previous article we examined the history of Kuchisake-Onna, exploring the many posited origins. But the interpretations of her are even more numerous. Academics and amateurs alike have understood and reimagined the slit mouth woman in a plethora of diverse ways. So, without further ado, let’s dive into the depths of Kuchisake-Onna

    What’s In A Smile?

    The most distinctive feature of Kuchisake-Onna is her slit mouth, described in various ways, from sheathe-like to…well “sheathe-like”. But, interestingly, I can find only one article comparing her most distinctive feature to real life facial disabilities. Kun Hwang authored a paper relating the mythological figure to lateral facial clefts, that is a congenital opening of the face around the mouth.[1] He wrote a passage that I believe is important to initiate this discussion of Kuchisake-Onna.

    “We plastic surgeons should be aware that facial cleft patients in past societies may have been treated as ‘Ghosts’ who harm other people.”

    Within any discussion of folkloric figures and the horror of disability, it is critical to recognise one fundamental truth. People will use these stories to otherise those with similar disabilities, to treat them as monsters. As much as we can abstract the various parts and tales of Kuchisake-Onna to look at societal issues (and trust me we will) it’s equally important to recognise the more obvious reflections. How a society, even a modern day one, treats and perceives those with disabilities.

    Clefts, scars and other physical differences can cause medical problem for the individual. However, when stories villainise and stereotypically portray them, it is not for the fact they are detrimental to the person with them. Indeed, Kuchisake-Onna’s slit mouth is not disgusting for the effects it has on her but the effect it has on the viewer. This centring of the (presumed) physically normative individuals reaction is exceedingly common in all media representation of those who experience visible disabilities. But in all of horror’s subgenres, including folklore, it is strikingly apparent. The removal of limbs or deforming of the body remains a staple of the genre as a way to get a quick and easy shock. The sensationalism of this is a lesson to the audience. That those who possess similar features should be viewed as inherently horrific and unusual. Whether this means they are pitiable or villainous depends on the tale.

    Kuchisake Onna By Jessica Lauser
    Retrieved From: Facebook

    But there is another layer of this to unpack. Kuchisake-Onna disfigurement is repeatedly described as having come about due to a surgical procedure, either a vanity based plastic surgery[2] or as a result of trying to be rid of a pre-existing cleft.[1] The first case plays into two tired but tested tropes of fiction, the vain woman getting ironic revenge and the use of disability as retribution. The former will be discussed in another post, but the latter is worth investigating further. Disabilities are not solely used as a sign of a deformity in character but as some form of karmic or divine justice for a person’s misdeeds. This reflects on the disabled individual as inherently corrupted, perhaps even from birth. Their disability, therefore, can be seen as a shorthand for the stain upon their soul that the audience can instantly identify. A lesson which is then replicated in real life.

    The second case represents a notable contrast to the first, as the implication (in my opinion at least) is that in trying to reduce her cleft, she is punished. One could interpret this as again punishing vanity, but I think there is another interpretation. That those with disabilities cannot win. That by trying to change your physical difference, you are transgressing. Because if a person can change themselves to look like the physical majority, it shows the artificality of such a construct. If it is not inherent, but something which can be achieved through sleight of hand, it loses both it’s power and meaning to those born physically normative. This idea, is unpalatable to many, so stories and folklore exist to counter such narratives.

    It is somewhat ironic for a famous myth that villanises those with facial clefts to quite accurately surmise the catch-22 many find themselves in. There is no winning for the physically different but to atone in the manner society seems fit. Which is typically whatever soothes the mind of the physical majority and encourages them to feel better, at the cost of the physically different.

    Sheathing A Theory

    Let’s take a breather from the somewhat depressing societal implications and talk about something much more fun. The psychoanalytical theory relating to Kuchisake-Onna. For those who don’t have an extra psychology degree lying around (and why don’t you?) psychoanalytics is the field of psychology pertaining the ideas of Sigmund Freud. You may have heard of Freud through the Oedipus complex, the idea that adolescent boys really… REALLY love their mothers. But the topic relevant today is castration anxiety.

    Castration anxiety is pretty much what it sounds like, the belief that pre-pubescent boys are pathologically scared of being castrated.[7] This comes about because apparently boys believe their mothers are castrated men, rather than women. Freud really did just get away with declaring anything. As reported by Barbara Creed in her seminal work The Monstrous-Feminine, Joseph Campbell first linked castration anxiety to vagina dentata.[8] That is, a literally toothy genital, a la Teeth (2007). The vagina dentata appears in a variety of cultures and according to Campbell is a sign of men’s latent castration anxiety and fear of vaginas. In addition Campbell argues it represents gynephobia, a term used by Freud to describe men’s fear of women’s sexuality and feminity. This is often considered decoupled from misogyny by psychodynamic academics. How much you wish to decouple it is up to you.

    Photograph of The Livraria Lello & Irmão
    By uninformedcomment
    Retrieved From:
    WordPress

    At this moment, you may be rather reasonably asking, how does a slit mouthed woman relate to a toothed genital? Well the idea of vagina dentata, and a lot of psychodynamic symbolism, is its focus on evoking iconography. Even if they’re not necessarily the exact same symbol. In this case, both Foster and Shartle make comparisons to Kuchisake-Onna mouth and female genitalia.[2][4] The essential point is Kuchisake-Onna is part of a lineage of vagina dentata stories. And Kuchisake-Onna’s rise to fame is a representation of the prevalent fears Japanese men had in the 70s. This fear was presumably aided by the rise in feminist movements at the time. And the theorising is not merely academic. I wish I was kidding, but Foster found the following anonymous quote from a male student:

    “The mouth of Kuchi-sake-onna is genital-like. And what’s more, it’s ridiculously huge and gaudy and unclean, so I don’t want to be touched by it!”[2]

    I mean at least he was honest.

    You may have noticed throughout this section my incredibly subtle disdain. Some of it is around 5 years of repeatedly having to listen to Freud’s weird personal theories that feel like textbook projection. But, as well, nearly all of psychodynamic theory has fallen out of vogue in psychology because people just don’t often think this way. You will be able find some cases of people who are…let’s say highly sexed. But the unconscious framework underlying seeing a slit mouth as a sexual object both cannot be proven and is not the simplest explaination.

    Castration anxiety could just be the relatively ordinary feeling the majority of people have about their most sensitive area being hurt. Made worse for the half of the population for whom that area is exposed.As for vagina dentata, it is theorised to originate from medical stories of calcified lumps within vaginas.[9] And unlike nearly all vagina dentata myths, Kuchisake-Onna does not emasculate her victims, let alone with her teeth. She slices people with scythes or scissors which is either a left over from her rural predeceeding folklore or just a common household item.

    I do believe there is some merit to the idea that Kuchisake-Onna represents the fears of men. However, there is a tendency in psychology and especially psychodynamic theories, to over-generalise and overcomplicate simple ideas. The fear of being harmed and the misogynistic framing is more likely to be context and socially specific, rather than tapping into a disproven latent fear.

    A Class Act

    As stated in my previous post, Kuchisake-Onna first spread around Japan through the juku or preparatory schools, which were new at the time.[3][5] In fact, Takaji even believed that the rumour spread as a method of keeping lower class children out of these schools.[3] By instilling fear of being in the city at night, it could convince children to never attend. This in and of itself, its emblematic of the class divide within Japanese society. How many disliked or outright feared the intermingling of numerous sects that used to be separated. There was a palpable anxiety around the blurring of distinct strata and what that would mean for those who benefitted from such a system.

    However, one cannot separate Kuchisake-Onna from her rural beginnings. From her tale originating in the Gifu Prefecture and likely being inspired by ghost stories of the farmer’s uprising in 1754.[10] To her oft used scythe, an item rarely seen in urban settings and considered short hand for rurality.[2] To even the methods of repelling her evoking traditional Edo period yōkai, such as chanting “pomade” three times. [2] Kuchisake-Onna is part and parcel a tale of rurality within an urban setting and the mismatch between those two worlds. And with that mismatch, comes classism.

    Japanese Tales by loputyn
    Retrieved From Instagram

    In the 1970s, on top of a wave of feminist thinking, the Japanese population was beginning to be disillusioned with urbanisation. This was somewhat due to a lack of worker’s rights as well as an increased separation between the urban and rural. [2] Accompanying this was an almost fetishistic level of adoration for the past including for previous mythology of that time. This led, in some part, to the adoption of Kuchisake-Onna. Foster claims that she can even be seen as a trasitional folkloric figure, incorporating both the old and the new. In this way, she represents the desire of many to return to simpler times. But the view was rather rose tinted, as alongside this rise in traditionalism, was an elevation in disdain for the working class.

    The 1970s saw a rise of worker’s strikes and student protest within Japan.[2] Many stories of the strikers at the time were exaggerated, frequently portraying them as boorish and even violent. The mask Kuchisake-Onna is reported to wear can be seen as a sign of protest, as it was used by many political movements to provide anonymity when protesting. As such, the story aligns Kuchisake-Onna with the perceived violent protests, demonstrating the danger that may lie under the mask. This can be extended further to a more impersonal interpretation. The fear of the wealthy about what student and worker’s rights protests may mean for sense of safety and security. Both in a financial and very literal physical way.

    As a result, Kuchisake-Onna can be viewed in two contrasting ways. Both as a call to the good old times of strange folklore from rural areas and as a sign of the violence from seemingly kind working-class people. eve the former isn’t exactly a much more favourable interpretation. It leans on tropes that patronise rural communities, depicting them as strange, backwards people with their unusual customs. In essence, mystifying and dehumanising those in rural communities, contrasting them with the more “civilised”, advanced urbanites.

    In either case, Kuchisake-Onna could be understood a folkloric backlash to the widespread changes that were happening, and the security of the wealthy being threatened. However, this would not fully explain Kuchisake-Onna wide adoption by the rural and working class. So I have one more aspect to share today.

    The Horror of Cities

    The urban environments where Kuchisake-Onna propagated were new to many children and adults. As many a horror media can attest, there is a liminality and dread of such environments when devoid of people. Liminal spaces, in internet parlance, represent the quietly unsettling transitional margins.[11] Often this can be witnessed in pure white corridors within a hospital, a clearly utilitarian artifice that feels devoid of emotions. These hallways exist purely to transition you between different rooms. There is something disquietening about the lack of warmth or humanity in such places. The emptiness in these spaces adds to the unease, as we naturally feel that such spaces should be filled with people and objects. One can view the walkways of urban settings as liminal areas, as they exist merely to transition us between buildings.

    A Hobbytown Under Renovation by Bill Magritz
    Retrieved From: Wikipedia

    If you’ve ever walked alone in a city at night you’ve most likely experienced the horror of liminality. Shadows become people, wind becomes footsteps and buildings become toppling towers. It’s not impossible to identify how people’s fear of this unnerving environment was entangled with Kuchisake-Onna. How transposed onto an originally rural myth, spread a fear of an attractive stranger who was out to wound you in this strange urban hellscape. Who you could never truly tell the intentions of what lied behind the mask. A figure who left you wondering if she was as devoid of humanity as her surroundings.

    Additionally, when Kuchisake-Onna rose to international notoriety there was an increase in awareness about the health impacts of city environments within Japan.[2] People were realising the mental, physical and financial toll the move towards city landscapes as the new hotbed of industry was having. Of particular note was the uptick in cadmium and mercury poisoning as well as the increasing risk of smog. This led to a rise in people wearing masks, as a preventative measure against an environment trying to defeat them.

    Therefore, as Foster argues, one can see Kuchisake-Onna as a representation of these fears.[2] Her mask and the revealing of her disfigurement underlies the concerns of the people living in these contemporary and hazardous environments. How they fear the fact that they too, may become physically ill or even disabled, because the city itself is killing them. Though her slit face mimics a genetic disability, it can be seen as representation for all kinds of illness. As well, her rural trappings can be seen as a contrast between the two environments. How, when the rural transition to the urban, the sole result is a harm to yourself and to those around you.

    With all this said, I am eager to hear your thoughts and interpretations of Kuchisake-Onna. There will be a final essay about the many feminist links to Kuchisake-Onna in two weeks. I hope you’ve enjoyed this. Until next time!

    References

    1. Hwang, K. (2023). Slit-mouthed woman (Kuchisake Onna) and plastic surgery. Journal of Craniofacial Surgery, 34(5), 1370.
    2. Michael Dylan Foster. (2009). Pandemonium and Parade. Univ of California Press.
    3. Asakura, T. (1989). Ano kuchisakeon’na no sumika o Gifu sanchū ni mita’“uwasa no hon” Takarajimasha
    4. Shartle, R. (2023). Motherhood, Femininity, and the Body: Reading Representations of the Feminine in Kuchisake-onna (Postwar Japan) (Master’s thesis, Arizona State University).
    5. Yoshiyuki, I. (2019). Japanese Urban Legends from the “Slit-Mouthed Woman” to “Kisaragi Station.” Retrieved From: Nippon.com
    6. Hayakawa, K. (2008) Kowai hanashi – anata no shiranai Nippon no “kyōfu”, Mirion Shuppan
    7. Freud, S. (1927), “Fetishism’,The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, 24v ols, trans. James Strachey.
    8. Creed, B. (1993). The Monstrous-Feminine: Film, Feminism, Psychoanalysis. London: Routledge
    9. Wikipedia Contributors. (2025). Vagina dentata. Retrieved from Wikipedia website: Wikipedia
    10. Hayakawa, K. (2008) Kowai hanashi – anata no shiranai Nippon no “kyōfu”, Mirion Shuppan
    11. Wikipedia Contributors. (2025). Liminal space (aesthetic). Retrieved from Wikipedia website: Wikipedia
  • The Origin of Kuchisake-Onna

    The Origin of Kuchisake-Onna

    If, like me, you watch far more anime than is healthy you are likely familiar with Kuchisake-Onna. Directly translated into English as the Slit-Mouthed Woman, she is a beautiful being who at first looks human, but soon reveals her true ugliness. I, like many, believed that this story came from far back in the annals of Japanese history. However the origins of Kuchisake-Onna, are not so cleanly sliced

    Understanding the Story

    The story of Kuchisake-Onna has some variations depending on the version, but all follow the same fundamental idea. A woman was killed by having her mouth slit, usually because she cheated on her spouse or had plastic surgery. However, death proves to not be the end, as she rises once more as a vengeful spirit. In this form, her slit mouth is concealed by something be it a fan, handkerchief or surgical mask. In addition, she now wields a sharp object, usually a scythe but it can be a knife or even scissors. As part of her vengeance she seeks isolated people, usually men or boys, on dark nights and asks them a simple question.

    “Am I pretty?”

    Most people would reply yes, but those who decide to respond negatively are swiftly slain. But should you be affirmative, a second question is asked, punctuated by the revealing of her disfigurement.

    “How about now?”

    If you say no, she will slice you with her scythe. If you say yes, she will make your face as pretty as hers. Rather horrific right? There are ways to be spared, though it changes with every telling. Some say that pomade, or hair wax, can ward her away. This is to the point just chanting pomade three times can get rid of her. Others mention throwing candy or offering it to her will satisfy her bloodlust. There’s even versions that suggest you simply answer yes twice, although I would not personally risk it.

    Image Credit to Benjamin Mako Hill,
    Retrieved from:Wikipedia

    Pinning Down An Origin

    When first researching this, you will come across a variety of webpages attributing the tale of Kuchisake-Onna to the Edo period, that is from around 1600 to 1853. [1][2]. In fact one article even reported that it existed in the Heian period, around 784 to 1185. [3]. However when reading these accounts, you will notice something quite plainly. There is literally no academic evidence given to support such a conclusion.

    So next, you would turn to the bastion of academic integrity itself. Wikipedia. The site lists two possible origin points, the Edo period and the late 20th century [4] The former hypothesis is referenced with two pieces of data. An image from the 1801 book Ehon Sayo Shigure by Hayami Shungyōsai and a blog post on Kuchisake-Onna by folklore illustrator Matthew Meyer:

    From Ehon Sayo Shigure by Hayami Shungyōsai,
    Retrieved From: Wikipedia

    “During the Edo period, a large number of Kuchisake-Onna attacks were blamed on shape-changed kitsune playing pranks on young men.” [5]

    Ehon Sayo Shigure is nearly impossible to obtain, but there is some second hand reporting I will touch on later. However Meyer, never actually references any account to back up his claim, so we can somewhat discount it. Though I do have an idea that could explain it. But to do so I need to take you to the beginning of Kuchisake-Onna. To a grander, more innocent time long forgotten by all but the oldest soul. An ancient period of humanity shrouded in mystery.

    1978.

    The Elderly Modern

    As reported separately by folklorists Iikura Yoshiyuki [6] and Michael Foster [7], the first textual reference to the tale of Kuchisake-Onna was in December 1978. Specifically, it was the story of an elderly woman, living in a rural area of the Gifu prefecture. At night, she saw a slit-mouthed lady standing in the corner of her garden, who disappeared without a trace. Yoshiyuki goes on to speculate that the propagation of the myth started with children in the prefecture who intermingled in the new juku or preparatory classes. This led to a cross section of class and geography that had never existed, allowing such a captivating myth to mutate and spread. Journalist Asakura Takaji argues it may have been used to scare lower income kids from even attending these jukus[8].

    On top of this, Foster argues the tale captivated the minds of adults, with women orientated magazines at the time being absolutely crucial in relaying it to a maturer audience. The reach of Kuchisake-Onna was so rapid that by May 1979, it was in national news and there are records of her story within every prefecture. And this is pre-internet times, that is an astounding level of expansion and adoption for a folkloric tale.

    But if we are to believe that Kuchisake-Onna originates within this period, we would need an explanation for why it is tied to the Edo period. Foster argues that folklorists like Noboru [9] and Shigeru [10] tied Kuchisake-Onna to previous mythological women. This was not to just suggest a simple link in how stories often have archetypes and repeating narratives but instead as Foster puts it:

    “ ..based on a genealogical line of demonic women or some essentialist female nature…”

    In other words Kuchisake-Onna is treated as a inextricably tied to Edo period yōkai, in that she is the continuation of these stories. This leads to a muddying of her origin. Instead of being clearly created in the 70s, she is treated as a figure in mythology who has eternally existed. The latest story is relegated to a mere modern retelling. This becomes even more apparent when Shigeru ties Kuchisake-Onna to Iso-Onna, a tale of siren like women, by drawing the Iso-Onna with a slit mouth in his books. This attempts to recreate Kuchisake-Onna as a Edo myth, a titan of folklore. All of this, serves to confuse and muddy the water, leading to articles assuming that Kuchisake-Onna is directly from in the Edo Period. Or even that it can be confused with kitsunes.

    From Zoku yōkai jiten (Tōkyōdō Shuppan), 1984 by Mizuki Shigeru

    Though this is convincing, I don’t believe it to be the whole story. Whilst it is true that Noboru and Shigeru connections are shaky at best. There are real connections to Edo period mythology, which albeit not named Kuchisake-Onna, at least helped greatly to inspire the modern myth.

    Painting A Clearer Picture

    I previously mentioned an artwork by Shungyōsai from his book Ehon Sayo Shigure. Ehon is essentially a term for the type of publication, relatively similar to a picture book where art occupies most pages accompanied by text. The text alongside this drawing is part of a story. It describes a man who goes to procure adult services, and discovers a woman within the local hotspot [10]. The woman seems gorgeous although he can only see her back.

    However when she turns, a slitted smile is revealed, that goes from ear to ear. This causes the man to faint and the woman is never seen again. A similar tale exists in Hirachika’s story from the mid 1700s, although in this version, a man dies from shock.[11] These appear to be the first textual references to a slit mouthed woman in Japanese mythology, though they do not share the name of Kuchisake-Onna. Whilst the distinctive smile is certainly similar, the narrative around it feels far removed, apart from the surprise reveal. But these are not the sole examples of possible precursors.

    The next story comes from the Gifu prefecture. A woman tries to cross a mountain pass to visit her lover.[12] However, to stave off the danger of ne’er-do-wells, she bears a sickle and holds a crescent shaped carrot over her mouth. On it’s own this shares some vague similarities. But let me include some historical context. In 1754 the Gifu Prefecture, then the Mino Province, was the site of a farmer’s revolt known as the Gujo Uprising. [12] As you can imagine the event was a bloody affair, that prompted tales of vengeful spirits of the farmers who had been slain. It is possible the imagery of two local myths could have ended up intermingling. The spirit of a vengeful woman carrying a sickle, fawning for love and possessing an unusual facial feature. All of this helping invent the story of Kuchisake-Onna.

    Further more, some of the ways to deal with Kuchisake-Onna harken back to previous mythology. Pomade contains mugwort, a plant used as a ward against malevolent spirits. The chanting of pomade three times evokes the rituals of Shintoism. Even the candy trick was formerly used in stories of Ubume, the spirits of pregnant women who (in one version) wished to get sweets for their unborn children.

    Overall, a lot of Kuchisake-Onna’s tale appears to be piecemeal inspired by a variety of folklore that came before it. So whilst Kuchisake-Onna, as we now recognize her, definitely started in the 1970s. The story undeniably drew heavily from folklore of the time, as well as the events of the local culture.

    A Slice of Truth

    From all this inevitably follows the question. Why? Why would academics focus on ephemeral connections to kitsune and Iso-Onna, when real connections to actual Edo period mythology exist? In a word.

    Prestige.

    Foster mentions how Shigeru in particular fosters comparisons between himself and the legendary Edo period illustrator of folklore Toriyama Sekien. Sekien’s drawings of bizarre figures are some of the most well-known both within and outside of Japan. It is unfortunately common within all forms of academia that people are rather one track minded, making connections based on pre conceived notions of the research they are conducting.

    If scholars like Shigeru focus on the prestigious folklorists of the period, then it will be easy to miss the more humble connections. And the opposite occurs too. When academics decide to counter investigate the claims, they focus on completely discrediting the idea. Because a more nuanced “yes but no” is simply less interesting to their fellows and popular media.

    From Gazu Hyakki Yagyō by Toriyama Sekien

    I, myself, am not immune to this. In writing this essay, I started with the notion that I was going to be about how academics falsely created a connection to folkloric figures. That I was untangling a web of bias against urban legends in favour of more widespread classical myths. Though I believe it is a factor, it’s undeniable that there are genuine historical connections that were missed by Foster and Yoshiyuki. By trying and break down hypotheses lacking evidence, I almost overlooked a rich cavalcade of local and national history. All in the hopes of an exciting essay that devoid of any nuance.

    Because in all honesty, the real-life conclusion is a little boring. Of course an urban legend takes inspiration from previous myths and actual events. And whilst the details are fascinating to me. It’s a lot less salacious than academics deliberately lying due to bias or talking about how traditionalism obscures the beauty of modern tales.

    Even so, ultimately the truth of Kuchisake-Onna’s origin really does matter. The preceding stories that inspired her, as well as the unique historical context at which it arose, all inform how we can understand and interpret the tale. Without this knowledge, any analysis will be unable to articulate what captured the imagination of the people, and what ushered it as a viral hit before the internet existed. But that is a story for another time.

    I hope you enjoyed this essay on the origins of Kuchisake-Onna. I look forward to discussing the many ways she can be elucidated. Until next time!

    References

    1. Dowell, C. (2024). The Legend of Kuchisake-onna: Japan’s Slit-Mouthed Woman. Retrieved from: Medium.com
    2. Unknown Author. (2024). The Legend of the Kuchisake-onna: The Slit-Mouthed Woman in Japanese Urban Legends. Retrieved from: Mythology Worldwide
    3. Harvey, A. (2023). Kuchisake Onna: The Vengeful Japanese Spirit That Attacks Victims After Asking “Am I Beautiful?” Retrieved from: All Thats Interesting
    4. Wikipedia Contributors. (2019). Kuchisake-onna. Retrieved from: Wikipedia
    5. Meyer, M. (2024). Kuchisake onna | Yokai.com. Retrieved from Yokai.com website: Yokai.com
    6. Yoshiyuki, I. (2019). Japanese Urban Legends from the “Slit-Mouthed Woman” to “Kisaragi Station.” Retrieved From: Nippon.com
    7. Michael Dylan Foster. (2009). Pandemonium and Parade. Univ of California Press.
    8. Asakura, T. (1989). Ano kuchisakeon’na no sumika o Gifu sanchū ni mita’“uwasa no hon” Takarajimasha
    9. Noboru, M. (1985), Yōkai no minzokugaku: Nihon no mienai kukan(Iwanami shoten), 22–27.
    10. Shigeru, M. (1984). Zoku yōkai jiten (Tōkyōdō Shuppan).
    11. Kondo, M. (2002) “Hyakki Ryoran: Edo Kaidan and Y . (2002) Hyakki Ryoran: Edo Kaidan and Yokai Ehon Shusei” , Kokusho Kankokai; Hayami, S. “Ehon Sayo Shigure”; (originally published in 1801)
    12. Shibata, S. (2008) ed., Dictionary of Strange Stories and Irregular Stories; Hirachika, T. , “Kaidan Oro no Cane” (originally published in the Horeki Period)
    13. Hayakawa, K. (2008) Kowai hanashi – anata no shiranai Nippon no “kyōfu”, Mirion Shuppan

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